For Brown and Hesketh (2004), however, graduates respond differently according to their existing values, beliefs and understandings. (2008) Managing in the New Economy: Restructuring White-Collar Work in the USA, UK and Japan, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Purists, believing that their employability is largely constitutive of their meritocratic achievements, still largely equate their employability with traditional hard currencies, and are therefore not so adept at responding to signals from employers. This research highlighted that some had developed stronger identities and forms of identification with the labour market and specific future pathways. Puhakka, A., Rautopuro, J. and Tuominen, V. (2010) Employability and Finnish university graduates, European Educational Research Journal 9 (1): 4555. This study has been supported by related research that has documented graduates increasing strategies for achieving positional advantage (Smetherham, 2006; Tomlinson, 2008, Brooks and Everett, 2009). PubMedGoogle Scholar, Tomlinson, M. Graduate Employability: A Review of Conceptual and Empirical Themes. Employability is a concept that has attracted greater interest in the past two decades as Higher Education (HE) looks to ensure that its output is valued by a range of stakeholders, not least Central . The consensus theory of employment argues that technological innovation is the driving force of social change (Drucker, 1993, Kerr, 1973). Consensus theories have a philosophical tradition dating . Moreover, they will be more productive, have higher earning potential and be able to access a range of labour market goods including better working conditions, higher status and more fulfilling work. This clearly implies that graduates expect their employability management to be an ongoing project throughout different stages of their careers. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. (2010) Overqualifcation, job satisfaction, and increasing dispersion in the returns to graduate education, Oxford Economic Papers 62 (4): 740763. Students in HE have become increasingly keener to position their formal HE more closely to the labour market. Such changes have inevitably led to questions over HE's role in meeting the needs of both the wider labour market and graduates, concerns that have largely emanated from the corporate world (Morley and Aynsley, 2007; Boden and Nedeva, 2010). Johnston, B. Knight, P. and Yorke, M. (2004) Learning, Curriculum and Employability in Higher Education, London: Routledge Falmer. It is clear that more coordinated occupational labour markets such as those found in continental Europe (e.g., Germany, Holland and France) tend to have a stronger level of coupling between individuals level of education and their allocation to specific types of jobs (Hansen, 2011). The final aim is to logically distinguish . While they were aware of potential structural barriers relating to the potentially classed and gendered nature of labour markets, many of these young people saw the need to take proactive measures to negotiate theses challenges. Google Scholar. the focus of many studies but it's difficult to find consensus due to different learning models and approaches considered. Kelsall, R.K., Poole, A. and Kuhn, A. Employability is a key concept in higher education. Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE). The global move towards mass HE is resulting in a much wider body of graduates in arguably a crowded graduate labour market. While consensus theory emphasizes cooperation and shared values, conflict theory emphasizes power dynamics and ongoing struggles for social change. Avoid the most common mistakes and prepare your manuscript for journal In contrast to conflict theories, consensus theories are those that see people in society as having shared interests and society functioning on the basis of there being broad consensus on its norms and values. Value consensus assumes that the norms and values of society are generally agreed and that social life is based on co-operation rather than conflict. Employment relations is the study of the regulation of the employment relationship between employer and employee, both collectively and individually, and the determination . There is much continued debate over the way in which HE can contribute to graduates overall employment outcomes or, more sharply, their outputs and value-added in the labour market. While in the main graduates command higher wages and are able to access wider labour market opportunities, the picture is a complex and variable one and reflects marked differences among graduates in their labour market returns and experiences. Thus, graduates who are confined to non-graduate occupations, or even new forms of employment that do not necessitate degree-level study, may find themselves struggling to achieve equitable returns. research investigating employability from the employers' perspective has been qualitative in nature. Theory could be viewed as a coherent group of assumptions or propositions put forth to . This again is reflected in graduates anticipated link between their participation in HE and specific forms of employment. This will help further elucidate the ways in which graduates employability is played out within the specific context of their working lives, including the various modes of professional development and work-related learning that they are engaged in and the formation of their career profiles. (2011) Graduate identity and employability, British Educational Research Journal 37 (4): 563584. Increasingly, graduates employability needs to be embodied through their so-called personal capital, entailing the integration of academic abilities with personal, interpersonal and behavioural attributes. Applying a broad concept of 'employability' as an analytical framework, it considers the attributes and experiences of 190 job seekers (22% of the registered unemployed) in two contiguous travel-to-work areas (Wick and Sutherland) in the northern Highlands of Scotland. Such perceptions are likely to be reinforced by not only the increasingly flexible labour market that graduates are entering, but also the highly differentiated system of mass HE in the United Kingdom. Report to HEFCE by the Centre for Higher Education Research and Information. Such strategies typically involve the accruement of additional forms of credentials and capitals that can be converted into economic gain. While some of these graduates appear to be using their extra studies as a platform for extending their potential career scope, for others it is additional time away from the job market and can potentially confirm that sense of ambivalence towards it. However, other research on the graduate labour market points to a variable picture with significant variations between different types of graduates. It now appears no longer enough just to be a graduate, but instead an employable graduate. What their research illustrates is that these graduates labour market choices are very much wedded to their pre-existing dispositions and learner identities that frame what is perceived to be appropriate and available. Naidoo, R. and Jamieson, I. Brooks, R. and Everett, G. (2008) The predominance of work-based training in young graduates learning, Journal of Education and Work 21 (1): 6173. Chapter 2 is to refute the Classical theory of employment and unemployment on both empirical and logical grounds. A consensus theory is one which believes that the institutions of society are working together to maintain social cohesion and stability. Perhaps increasingly central to the changing dynamic between HE and the labour market has been the issue of graduate employability. Tomlinson, M. (2008) The degree is not enough: Students perceptions of the role of higher education credentials for graduate work and employability, British Journal of Sociology of Education 29 (1): 4961. The New Right argues that liberal left politicians and welfare policies have undermined the . Boden, R. and Nedeva, M. (2010) Employing discourse: Universities and graduate employability, Journal of Education Policy 25 (1): 3754. Reay, D., Ball, S.J. editors. Variations in graduates labour market returns appear to be influenced by a range of factors, framing the way graduates construct their employability. Skills formally taught and acquired during university do not necessarily translate into skills utilised in graduate employment. Chevalier, A. and Lindley, J. The underlying assumption of this view is that the Archer, W. and Davison, J. Structural functionalists believe that society tends towards equilibrium and social order. Consensus theories include functionalism, strain theory and subcultural theory. (2007) Does higher education matter? As Brown et al. Research has tended to reveal a mixed picture on graduates and their position in the labour market (Brown and Hesketh, 2004; Elias and Purcell, 2004; Green and Zhu, 2010). In light of HE expansion and the declining value of degree-level qualifications, the ever-anxious middle classes have to embark upon new strategies to achieve positional advantages for securing sought-after employment. However, new demands on HE from government, employers and students mean that continued pressures will be placed on HEIs for effectively preparing graduates for the labour market. Little (2001) suggests, that it is a multi-dimensional concept, and there is a need to distinguish between the factors relevant to the job and preparation for work. What this research has shown is that graduates anticipate the labour market to engender high risks and uncertainties (Moreau and Leathwood, 2006; Tomlinson, 2007) and are managing their expectations accordingly. A Social Cognitive Theory. Structural Functionalism/ Consensus Theory. (2009) Over-education and the skills of UK graduates, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 172 (2): 307337. This may well confirm emerging perceptions of their own career progression and what they need to do to enhance it. *1*.J\ For Beck and Beck-Germsheim (2002), processes of institutionalised individualisation mean that the labour market effectively becomes a motor for individualisation, in that responsibility for economic outcomes is transferred away from work organisations and onto individuals. Many graduates are increasingly turning to voluntary work, internship schemes and international travel in order to enhance their employability narratives and potentially convert them into labour market advantage. The theory rests on the assumption that Conservative governments in this time period made an accommodation with the social democratic policy . In Europe, it would appear that HE is a more clearly defined agent for pre-work socialisation that more readily channels graduates to specific forms of employment. Research done over the past decade has highlighted the increasing pressures anticipated and experienced by graduates seeking well-paid and graduate-level forms of employment. the consensus and the conflict theory on graduate employability . Bridgstock, R. (2009) The graduate attributes weve overlooked: Enhancing graduate employability through career management skills, Higher Education Research and Development 28 (1): 3144. Smart, S., Hutchings, M., Maylor, U., Mendick, H. and Menter, I. Recent comparative evidence seems to support this and points to significant differences between graduates in different national settings (Brennan and Tang, 2008; Little and Archer, 2010). Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips, Not logged in As HE's role for regulating future professional talent becomes reshaped, questions prevail over whose responsibility it is for managing graduates transitions and employment outcomes: universities, states, employers or individual graduates themselves? In a similar vein, Greenbank (2007) also reported concerns among working-class graduates of perceived deficiencies in the cultural and social capital needed to access specific types of jobs. Various analysis of graduate returns (Brown and Hesketh, 2004; Green and Zhu, 2010) have highlighted the significant disparities that exist among graduates; in particular, some marked differences between the highest graduate earners and the rest. Debates on the future of work tend towards either the utopian or dystopian (Leadbetter, 2000; Sennett, 2006; Fevre, 2007). This research showed the increasing importance graduates attributed to extra-curricula activities in light of concerns around the declining value of formal degrees qualifications. This is further raising concerns around the distribution and equity of graduates economic opportunities, as well as the traditional role of HE credentials in facilitating access to desired forms of employment (Scott, 2005). The strengths of consensus theory are that it is a more objective approach and that it is easier to achieve agreement. Employability is a promise to employees that they will hold the accomplishments to happen new occupations rapidly if their occupations end out of the blue ( Baruch, 2001 ) . Their location within their respective fields of employment, and the level of support they receive from employers towards developing this, may inevitably have a considerable bearing upon their wider labour market experiences. In the more flexible UK market, it is more about flexibly adapting one's existing educational profile and credentials to a more competitive and open labour market context. In the United Kingdom, for example, state commitment to public financing of HE has declined; although paradoxically, state continues to exert pressures on the system to enhance its outputs, quality and overall market responsiveness (DFE, 2010). (2000) Recruiting a graduate elite? Ball, S.J. Employable individuals are able to demonstrate a fundamental level of functioning or skill to perform a given job, or an employable individual's skills and experience . Cranmer, S. (2006) Enhancing graduate employability: Best intentions and mixed outcome, Studies in Higher Education 31 (2): 169184. Thetable below has been compiled by a range of UK-based companies (see company details at the end of this guide), and it lists the Top 10 Employability Skills which they look for in potential employees - that means you! This is then linked to research that has examined the way in which students and graduates are managing the transition into the labour market. The challenge, it seems, is for graduates to become adept at reading these signals and reframing both their expectations and behaviours. This paper will increase the understandings of graduate employability through interpreting its meaning and whose responsibility . (2005) study, it appears that some graduates horizons for action are set within by largely intuitive notions of what is appropriate and available, based on what are likely to be highly subjective opportunity structures. This has tended to challenge some of the traditional ways of understanding graduates and their position in the labour market, not least classical theories of cultural reproduction. express the aim not to focus on the 'superiority of a single theory in understanding employability' (p. 897), . Handbook of the Sociology of Education, New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. Non-traditional graduates or new recruits to the middle classes may be less skilled at reading the changing demands of employers (Savage, 2003; Reay et al., 2006). The problem of graduate employability and skills may not so much centre on deficits on the part of graduates, but a graduate over-supply that employers find challenging to manage. The correspondence between HE and the labour market rests largely around three main dimensions: (i) in terms of the knowledge and skills that HE transfers to graduates and which then feeds back into the labour market, (ii) the legitimatisation of credentials that serve as signifiers to employers and enable them to screen prospective future employees and (iii) the enrichment of personal and cultural attributes, or what might be seen as personality. (2011) The Global Auction: The Broken Promises of Education, Jobs and Incomes, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Article Moreau, M.P. This has coincided with the movement towards more flexible labour markets, the overall contraction of management forms of employment, an increasing intensification in global competition for skilled labour and increased state-driven attempts to maximise the outputs of the university system (Harvey, 2000; Brown and Lauder, 2009). (2011) Towards a theoretical framework for the comparative understanding of globalisation, higher education, the labour market and inequality, Journal of Education and Work 24 (1): 185207. Graduate employability is clearly a problem that goes far wider than formal participation in HE, and is heavily bound up in the coordination, regulation and management of graduate employment through the course of graduate working lives. As a mode of cultural and economic reproduction (or even cultural apprenticeship), HE facilitated the anticipated economic needs of both organisations and individuals, effectively equipping graduates for their future employment. Englewood Cliffs . Much of the graduate employability focus has been on supply-side responses towards enhancing graduates' skills for the labour market. At another level, changes in the HE and labour market relationship map on to wider debates on the changing nature of employment more generally, and the effects this may have on the highly qualified. What such research has shown is that the wider cultural features of graduates frame their self-perceptions, and which can then be reinforced through their interactions within the wider employment context. there is insufficient rigour in applying the framework to managerial, organisational and strategic issues. Employability is sometimes discussed in the context of the CareerEDGE model. Yet the position of graduates in the economy remains contested and open to a range of competing interpretations. One is the pre-existing level of social and cultural capital that these graduates possess, which opens up greater opportunities. Hansen, H. (2011) Rethinking certification theory and the educational development of the United States and Germany, Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 29: 3155. Employability depends on your knowledge, skills and attitudes, how you use those assets, and how you present them to employers. One particular consequence of a massified, differentiated HE is therefore likely to be increased discrimination between different types of graduates. These risks include wrong payments to staff due to delay in flow of information in relation to staff retirement, death, transfers . The research by Brennan and Tang shows that graduates in continental Europe were more likely to perceive a closer matching between their HE and work experience; in effect, their HE had had a more direct bearing on their future employment and had set them up more specifically for particular jobs. However, while notions of graduate skills, competencies and attributes are used inter-changeably, they often convey different things to different people and definitions are not always likely to be shared among employers, university teachers and graduates themselves (Knight and Yorke, 2004; Barrie, 2006). They nevertheless remain committed to HE as a key economic driver, although with a new emphasis on further rationalising the system through cutting-back university services, stricter prioritisation of funding allocation and higher levels of student financial contribution towards HE through the lifting of the threshold of university fee contribution (DFE, 2010). It appears that the wider educational profile of the graduate is likely to have a significant bearing on their future labour market outcomes. Research done by Brooks and Everett (2008) and Little (2008) indicates that while HE-level study may be perceived by graduates as equipping them for continued learning and providing them with the dispositions and confidence to undertake further learning opportunities, many still perceive a need for continued professional training and development well beyond graduation. Again, graduates respond to the challenges of increasing flexibility, individualisation and positional competition in different ways. % This makes it reasonable to ask whether there is any such thing as the consensus theory of truth at all, in other words, whether there is any one single principle that the various approaches have in common, or whether the phrase is being used as a catch-all for a motley . The problem has been largely attributable to universities focusing too rigidly on academically orientated provision and pedagogy, and not enough on applied learning and functional skills. Tomlinson's research also highlighted the propensity towards discourses of self-responsibilisation by students making the transitions to work. Research has continually highlighted engrained employer biases towards particular graduates, ordinarily those in possession of traditional cultural and academic currencies and from more prestigious HEIs (Harvey et al., 1997; Hesketh, 2000). For some graduates, HE continues to be a clear route towards traditional middle-class employment and lifestyle; yet for others it may amount to little more than an opportunity cost. Teichler, U. His theory is thus known as demand-oriented approach. Roberts, K. (2009) Opportunity structures then and now, Journal of Education and Work 22 (5): 355368. Hinchliffe, G. and Jolly, A. ISSN 2039-9340 (print) ISSN 2039-2117 (online) Return to Article Details Graduate Employability Skills: Differences between the Private and the Public Sector in South Africa Download Download PDF Graduate Employability Skills: Differences between the Private and the Public Sector in South Africa Download Download PDF and David, M. (2006) Degree of Choice: Class, Gender and Race in Higher Education, Stoke: Trentham Books. Morley (2001) however states that employability . The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of some of the dominant empirical and conceptual themes in the area of graduate employment and employability over the past decade. consensus theory of employability. Tomlinson, M. (2007) Graduate employability and student attitudes and orientations to the labour market, Journal of Education and Work 20 (4): 285304. Graduates are perceived as potential key players in the drive towards enhancing value-added products and services in an economy demanding stronger skill-sets and advanced technical knowledge. However, further significant is the potential degrading of traditional middle-class management-level work through its increasing standardisation and routinisation (Brown et al., 2011). Much of the graduate employability focus has been on supply-side responses towards enhancing graduates skills for the labour market. They also reported quite high levels of satisfaction among graduates on their perceived utility of their formal and informal university experiences. Ainley, P. (1994) Degrees of Difference, London: Lawrence Washart. The theory of employability can be difficult to identify; there can be many factors that contribute to the idea of being employable. Smetherham, C. (2006) The labour market perceptions of high achieving UK graduates: The role of the first class credential, Higher Education Policy 19 (4): 463477. The role of employers and employer organisations in facilitating this, as well as graduates learning and professional development, may therefore be paramount. Under consensus theory the absence of conflict is seen as the equilibrium . Despite the limitations, the model is adopted to evaluate the role of education stakeholders in the Nigerian HE. In effect, individuals can no longer rely on their existing educational and labour market profiles for shaping their longer-term career progression. The theory of employability can be difficult to identify; there can be many factors that contribute to the idea of being employable. What more recent research on the transitions from HE to work has further shown is that the way students and graduates approach the labour market and both understand and manage their employability is also highly subjective (Holmes, 2001; Bowman et al., 2005; Tomlinson, 2007). Sennett, R. (2006) The Culture of New Capitalism, Yale: Yale University Press. An expanded HE system has led to a stratified and differentiated one, and not all graduates may be able to exploit the benefits of participating in HE. New consensus theory of employability: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp could be viewed as a coherent of. And Incomes, Oxford: Oxford university Press facilitating this, as well as graduates and., differentiated HE is therefore likely to have a significant bearing on their existing values beliefs... Of the CareerEDGE model is therefore likely to be influenced by a range competing... 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